Fad

“A practice, concept, or aesthetic that gains rapid popularity within a particular community or culture but lacks sustained relevance or empirical support. In artistic contexts, fads often emerge from charismatic leadership, market dynamics, or novelty appeal rather than from demonstrable improvements in outcomes, perceptual efficacy, or material integrity. Fads can sometimes masquerade as innovations but tend to fade quickly once their superficial appeal wanes or once critical scrutiny reveals a lack of substantive value. The transient nature of fads contrasts with empirically grounded practices, which persist through demonstrable success in perceptual communication, durability, and cognitive engagement. When evaluating artistic methodologies or styles, distinguishing between a fleeting fad and a robust, evidence-supported approach is essential for long-term skill development and perceptual reliability.”

Fake

“An object presented as something it is not—its inauthenticity stems from misrepresentation, which may or may not involve copying.”

Fallacy (Formal / Informal)

“A flaw in reasoning that renders an argument logically invalid or unpersuasive, even if its conclusion happens to be true. Fallacies are commonly divided into two broad categories: formal and informal.

A formal fallacy occurs when the structure of an argument violates the rules of deductive logic. These fallacies are identifiable regardless of the argument’s content. For example, the fallacy known as affirming the consequent follows this invalid structure:

If A, then B. – B is true. – Therefore, A is true. This is structurally flawed because multiple causes could result in B.

An informal fallacy, by contrast, stems from errors in content, context, or rhetorical manipulation rather than structural invalidity. Informal fallacies may include: Appeal to tradition (arguing that a practice is valid simply because it has been historically accepted), Ad hominem (attacking the person rather than the argument), False dichotomy (presenting two options as exhaustive when others exist), or Straw man (misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack).

In both forms, fallacies compromise the soundness, cogency, or clarity of an argument and often interfere with rational discourse, critical evaluation, and evidence-based practice.

Recognizing fallacies is especially important in fields that intersect subjective experience, tradition, and pedagogy—such as the visual arts—where intuitive or habitual claims are often mistaken for empirical or logical conclusions. The consistent identification and rejection of fallacious reasoning is essential to maintaining the validity and instructional integrity of perceptual training systems and critical dialogue.”

Fantasy Art

“A broad category of visual art centered around the imaginative depiction of mythological, folkloric, supernatural, or speculative subjects. Often populated with dragons, gods, otherworldly landscapes, or magical beings, fantasy art draws heavily on literary traditions, worldbuilding, and narrative symbolism.

Unlike Imaginative Realism, which emphasizes visual plausibility for invented scenes, Fantasy Art may embrace stylistic abstraction, symbolic exaggeration, or stylization that departs from perceptual logic. It ranges widely in fidelity—from painterly surrealism to stylized graphic illustration. Key figures include Frank Frazetta, Boris Vallejo, and, more recently, Julie Bell and Donato Giancola.

Fantasy Art can overlap with Imaginative Realism when the invented content is rendered with structural and observational discipline. However, Fantasy Art as a broader category does not require realistic visual logic and often prioritizes symbolic content or aesthetic stylization over physical believability. Fantasy Art is defined by the narrative scope of the imaginary; Imaginative Realism is defined by the structural plausibility of its depiction. The two may overlap—but are not synonymous.”

Fat over Lean Principle

“A foundational guideline in oil painting that governs the relative flexibility and oil content of successive paint layers to ensure long-term structural integrity. According to this principle, each subsequent layer of paint should contain more oil (be ‘fatter’) than the layer beneath it (which is ‘leaner’). This graduated increase in oil content contributes to a more flexible upper surface and helps prevent cracking and delamination due to differential drying and aging rates.

Ralph Mayer explains that oil paintings are laminated structures subject to physical and chemical stresses as they age. Paint layers with higher oil content dry more slowly and remain more flexible over time, while leaner layers (those with lower oil content) dry faster and become brittle. If a brittle, lean layer is placed over a more flexible, oily one, the surface layer may crack as it dries and shrinks at a different rate or fails to adhere properly due to the flexibility mismatch​.

The rule also encompasses the concept of elasticity and particle size in paint films: a layer of finely divided particles (typically leaner and faster drying) should not be applied over one composed of coarser particles or with greater flexibility. Mayer illustrates this with the analogy of painting brittle casein on rubber—flexion causes failure. Proper observance of this principle stabilizes the stratigraphy of the painting, minimizing the risk of microscopic hairline cracks developing into more serious defects​.

Practically, artists implement the Fat over Lean principle by adjusting paint layers with appropriate ratios of oil mediums, avoiding premature sealing of lower layers, and ensuring adequate drying time between stages. While this principle offers considerable leeway in application, significant deviations—such as placing high-oil-content mixtures beneath lean glazes—can compromise the longevity of a painting.”

Fatty Acid

“Organic compounds characterized by long hydrocarbon chains ending in a carboxylic acid group (–COOH). In the context of artistic painting materials, particularly oils and media, fatty acids are key building blocks of drying oils, which are triglycerides composed of glycerin and fatty acids. These compounds undergo oxidation and polymerization to form durable paint films.

Fatty acids are classified as saturated or unsaturated based on the presence of double bonds in their carbon chains. Unsaturated fatty acids (like linoleic and linolenic acids) are especially important in drying oils because their multiple double bonds react readily with atmospheric oxygen, initiating a chain reaction that results in the tough, solid films characteristic of dried oil paint.

Drying oils, such as linseed, walnut, and poppyseed oil, vary in performance due to their specific fatty acid composition. For instance, linseed oil contains a higher proportion of linolenic acid, which contributes to faster drying and stronger film formation. However, this same characteristic may lead to increased yellowing over time due to further oxidation. In addition to their role in drying behavior, free fatty acids can influence adhesion, tackiness, and paint stability, and are even involved in lithographic processes through their adsorption behavior on printing stones. The balance and reactivity of these acids are essential to the performance, aging, and archival qualities of oil-based painting media.”

Feedback

“Information generated as a result of an action, behavior, or performance that is used to evaluate and potentially modify future actions. In perceptual learning and skill acquisition contexts (such as those found in the Waichulis Curriculum), feedback plays a critical role in guiding calibration by highlighting discrepancies between intent and outcome. Feedback may be internal (from proprioceptive or perceptual monitoring) or external (such as critique or instructional guidance). Effective feedback should be timely, specific, and actionable to optimize adaptive change in perceptual-motor systems.”

Feedback Loop

“A closed-system process in which the output of a system is monitored and used to adjust subsequent inputs, creating a continuous cycle of modification and refinement. In visual art training, feedback loops are employed when artists assess their progress (e.g., via comparison to a reference or internal goal) and adjust technique accordingly. The feedback loop is foundational in both biological systems (e.g., sensorimotor coordination) and artificial systems (e.g., computer vision or machine learning), ensuring stability, error correction, and adaptive behavior through recursive evaluation.”

Feedforward

“A predictive control mechanism in which actions are guided by anticipated outcomes rather than real-time feedback from executed behavior. In contrast to feedback, which reacts to error after it occurs, feedforward systems use prior knowledge or modeling to shape responses preemptively. In perceptual-motor training, feedforward mechanisms are essential for developing fluency and automation, as they allow for efficient execution based on established patterns or expected stimuli. For example, an artist may adjust hand pressure or shape placement before marks are made, relying on internal models rather than post-mark corrections. Feedforward is particularly relevant in expert performance where real-time feedback may be too slow to guide rapid, precise action.”

Ferrule

“The metal (or occasionally plastic) sleeve that connects the handle of a brush to its hair bundle. It serves to clamp the bristles in place, maintaining the structural integrity and shape of the brush during use. The quality and configuration of the ferrule play a crucial role in determining the durability, precision, and handling of the brush.

According to Ralph Mayer, the ferrule may hold more of the brush hairs than is visible externally, especially in high-quality brushes where this design supports increased springiness and control​. The ferrule’s grip point on the hair (e.g., at the belly or above/below it) influences the character and responsiveness of the brush.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, understanding the ferrule is considered essential to intelligent brush selection and maintenance. Its shape, in conjunction with the cut of the hair bundle, defines the brush’s type—such as flat, round, filbert, or bright. Improper care (e.g., allowing paint to build up near the ferrule) is a common cause of bristle splaying, which compromises the tool’s performance over time​.

Maintenance practices such as avoiding excessive scrubbing, using mild soap, and storing brushes in a bristles-down position help preserve the integrity of the ferrule’s junction with the hair bundle and prevent premature failure​.”

Fibonacci Sequence

“The Fibonacci sequence is a mathematical series in which each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. This recursive pattern produces a sequence that grows at a rate increasingly close to the Golden Ratio (φ ≈ 1.618…), a mathematical constant derived from the equation (a + b)/a = a/b. The ratio of successive Fibonacci numbers (e.g., 13/8 or 21/13) converges asymptotically on the Golden Ratio as the sequence progresses, but never exactly reaches it. This is because φ is an irrational number—it cannot be expressed as the exact ratio of any two integers.

The relationship between the Fibonacci sequence and the Golden Ratio has been widely noted in mathematics, natural forms, and aesthetic theory. The Golden Ratio appears in spiral phyllotaxis, shell growth patterns, and logarithmic spirals often idealized in nature. Due to this convergence, Fibonacci numbers and Golden Ratio divisions are sometimes invoked in visual composition, particularly in claims about proportional harmony in classical art, architecture, and design.

However, while the Fibonacci sequence and Golden Ratio have clear mathematical and biological significance, their application in visual art should be approached critically. Many supposed uses of the Golden Ratio in historic works are either retrospective impositions or involve measurements that can vary widely with interpretation. There is no consistent empirical evidence that artists have relied on Fibonacci numbers or the Golden Ratio in a deliberate or perceptually optimized way within traditional compositional practice.

In sum, the Fibonacci sequence is mathematically linked to the Golden Ratio and may describe patterns found in nature or growth, but its role in visual art is best treated as a heuristic tool or post hoc descriptor, not as a proven principle of perceptual design.”

Fidelity in Representational Drawing

“The accuracy and faithfulness with which an artwork depicts its subject matter, capturing both its physical appearance and intrinsic character.”

Field of View (FOV)

“The total extent of the observable environment that can be seen at any given moment without moving the eyes or head. It is typically measured in degrees of visual angle and can be subdivided into monocular and binocular regions. In humans, the field of view spans approximately 180–200 degrees horizontally, with around 120 degrees being binocular (viewed simultaneously by both eyes), and the remainder being monocular (seen only by one eye).

The configuration of an organism’s field of view is determined by the placement of the eyes on the head. Frontal eye placement, as found in humans and other predators, enables a narrower total FOV but allows for extensive binocular overlap, which is essential for stereoscopic depth perception. In contrast, laterally placed eyes—as in many prey animals—maximize the panoramic field of view for environmental surveillance but reduce binocular overlap, and consequently, depth acuity​.

The field of view is not synonymous with visual field, which refers more precisely to the functional sensitivity within the FOV under specific conditions (e.g., perimetry testing (a clinical method used to map a person’s visual field—the total area in which objects can be seen in the peripheral vision while the eyes are focused on a central point)). The FOV also integrates with perceptual processes such as attention and eye movement planning, influencing how scenes are explored and encoded during visual tasks.”

Figural

“An adjective derived from figure, but its use in art discourse is often ambiguous and inconsistently applied. While it is sometimes used interchangeably with figurative, especially in casual or commercial contexts, its more accurate usage denotes content that involves or implies the human figure or anthropomorphic forms—often with symbolic or stylized characteristics rather than strict anatomical realism.

In historical art contexts, ‘figural sculpture’ or ‘figural decoration’ typically refers to works that incorporate or abstract the human body—as opposed to geometric, floral, or purely ornamental motifs. In this sense, figural content does not require naturalistic representation but is defined by its conceptual association with the body or body-like presence.

In contemporary usage, however, the term is frequently conflated with figurative—which refers broadly to any representational art, including animals, objects, and landscapes. This conflation can lead to confusion, particularly in instructional or critical settings.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, the term figural is generally avoided in favor of more precise descriptors such as figure-based, anthropomorphic, or representational, in order to minimize ambiguity and maintain a consistent empirical framework for image analysis and construction.

Artists and educators are encouraged to clarify their intended use of the term whenever possible to avoid miscommunication—particularly when distinguishing between human-form studies (figure drawing/painting), symbolic bodily reference (figural), and general representational imagery (figurative).”

Figure

“In visual art, figure most commonly refers to the representation of the human form, either in whole or in part. This includes depictions of the nude or clothed body, portraiture, or anthropomorphic renderings. Historically, the human figure has been a central subject across many artistic traditions due to its expressive capacity, symbolic weight, and the technical demands it presents.

In broader usage, figure may denote any perceptually separable shape or subject that stands out from a surrounding field—an idea closely tied to the perceptual principle of figure-ground organization. In this context, the figure is the element of focus, while the ground recedes as background. This figure-ground dynamic plays a fundamental role in how we segment and interpret visual information, forming the basis for many compositional strategies in image construction.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, figure typically refers to the human form, encountered in advanced exercises such as Natural Form Projects. These assignments extend the perceptual logic applied to geometric solids to the complexities of anatomy and organic structure. The emphasis is not on anatomical memorization, but on using observational cues (light, value, proportion, and edge behavior) to construct the illusion of dimensional form.

Importantly, artists should distinguish figure from figurative, which refers more broadly to representational imagery, and from figural, a term that is often used inconsistently to describe both human and symbolic representations. Maintaining clarity on these terms supports more precise communication regarding intent, subject matter, and compositional structure.”

Figurative

“A broad category of visual art that represents recognizable objects, people, or environments drawn from the observable world. It stands in contrast to abstract or non-objective art, which does not attempt to depict real-world forms.

Unlike figure or figural, which typically imply reference to the human form, figurative encompasses a much wider spectrum of representational content—including but not limited to landscapes, still life, animals, architectural elements, and human subjects. A painting of a tree, a bowl of fruit, or a portrait all qualify as figurative works, provided they maintain identifiable references to the external world.

Historically, figurative art has dominated Western art traditions from antiquity through the 19th century. Even within movements that allowed for expressive distortion (e.g., Expressionism, Cubism), works that retained reference to the visible world were still considered figurative. In contemporary discourse, the term often serves to differentiate representational work from abstraction in gallery classification, curatorial language, and market labeling.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, figurative is used with specificity to distinguish between: general representational art (figurative), depictions of the human form (figure drawng/painting), and works that imply bodily forms symbolically or decoratively (figural).

Maintaining this terminological distinction reinforces clarity in critiques, assignments, and discussions about pictorial strategy and perceptual goals. Artists working within the realist tradition are encouraged to define their approach in relation to this hierarchy to communicate intentions with maximum precision.”

Figure Drawing / Painting

“Figure Drawing and Figure Painting refer to the representational depiction of the human form, often executed from a live model or photographic reference. These practices are not confined to artistic anatomy but involve the strategic integration of proportion, gesture, surface feature analysis, and light-based form construction.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, figure-based projects are introduced as Natural Form Projects—supplemental assignments that challenge students to apply perceptual principles from geometric form training to complex, organic subjects such as the human figure​. The goal is not stylistic mimicry but deliberate replication guided by informed decisions regarding value, shape, and proportion. Students may explore both 2D and 3D references while maintaining fidelity to observed phenomena.

Historically, figure studies served as a core component of Academic Art and Atelier traditions, emphasizing anatomical knowledge and idealized proportion. In contrast, the Waichulis methodology emphasizes perceptual realism, in which the figure is understood as a biomorphic form constructed through the same logic as spheres, cubes, and cones—using gradations of value and chroma to encode surface and volume​.

Mayer reinforces the centrality of figure drawing in traditional art education, noting texts like Bridgman’s and Vanderpoel’s as pivotal references for structural analysis of the human form​. However, he also notes that mastery of anatomical features is only effective when married with an understanding of perspective, light behavior, and medium-specific properties.

In summary, Figure Drawing and Painting are not isolated disciplines but advanced applications of foundational perceptual training, demanding rigorous attention to shape, value hierarchy, edge resolution, and surface interaction.”

Figure-Ground Interactions

“The visual and perceptual relationship between a primary subject (figure) and its surrounding space (ground) within a composition. This interplay affects how objects are distinguished, emphasized, or integrated into their environment. Strong figure-ground dynamics can create clarity, depth, or ambiguity, influencing how viewers interpret and engage with the image. Artists manipulate contrast, edge definition, and spatial arrangement to control how figures emerge from or blend into the background.”

Figure-Ground Organization

“The perceptual process by which the visual system segregates a scene into discrete elements: figures (objects of focus) and ground (the background or surrounding space). This foundational mechanism enables the observer to determine which regions of a visual field correspond to solid, tangible objects and which constitute empty or less relevant space. It is an early and necessary step in visual processing—occurring before object recognition, perceptual grouping, or part-whole parsing​.

First formalized by Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin (1921), this process is characterized by a set of phenomenological asymmetries between figures and grounds. Figures are typically perceived as: closer to the observer, more shape-defined (the contour belongs to the figure), more ‘thing-like’, and processed preferentially in terms of attention and memory. In contrast, grounds appear farther away, unshaped by contour, and less salient in memory tasks​.

Rubin and subsequent researchers have identified stimulus-driven cues that bias the perceptual assignment of figure versus ground:

In visual art, figure-ground relationships are often deliberately manipulated to control spatial perception, direct attention, and achieve compositional clarity. Mastery of figure-ground dynamics is crucial for effective pictorial structure, particularly in illusionistic space construction and perceptual anchoring.”

Filbert

“A type of paintbrush characterized by a flat ferrule and a rounded, oval tip. It combines the structural traits of both flat and round brushes, allowing for a versatile range of stroke qualities—from broad, sweeping applications to controlled, curved marks. The name likely derives from its resemblance to the shape of a filbert nut.

According to Ralph Mayer, the filbert is a ‘very useful oval’ brush with rounded corners, resembling a well-worn flat brush. This shape enables the brush to deliver paint in a manner that is less angular and more blended at the edges, making it particularly effective for contouring, soft transitions, and rendering rounded forms​.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, filberts play a foundational role in both early and advanced painting exercises. A starter kit for students typically includes a range of filbert bristle brushes (e.g., sizes 2 to 6), selected for their balance of flexibility and control. The filbert is valued for its ability to navigate between assertive application and subtle modulation, making it a key tool in the Analog Brush Load Strategy, where control over opacity and surface interaction is essential​.

While other brush shapes like flats or brights may be favored for more rigid or geometric marks, the filbert’s soft cornered edge allows for a more organic, sculptural approach to form—particularly well-suited to working on naturalistic subjects like the human figure or still life. Its adaptability makes it a staple in both direct and indirect painting workflows.”

Filler

“A finely divided, inert substance added to paints, grounds, or other art materials to modify texture, consistency, absorbency, or body without contributing color. Inert fillers are not considered pigments because they lack significant tinting strength, transparency, or chromatic effect. Instead, they serve as extenders or structural modifiers, influencing the mechanical and optical properties of the product in which they are used.

Common examples of fillers include calcium carbonate (chalk or whiting), barium sulfate (blanc fixe), clay, talc, magnesium carbonate, and diatomaceous earth. These materials may be introduced during the wet-milling phase of paint manufacturing or blended with dry powders during preparation of grounds or gesso.

Ralph Mayer notes that fillers are a standard component in traditional gesso (along with animal glue and pigment), where they contribute to the smooth, absorbent, and sandable quality of the ground​. In commercial oil paints, particularly lower-grade or ‘student’ varieties, fillers may be used to reduce cost—sometimes at the expense of pigment concentration and film strength. Mayer emphasizes that the most durable artists’ colors avoid excessive fillers in favor of higher pigment loads​.

In reduced or ‘let-down’ colors (i.e., paints in which the pigment concentration has been deliberately reduced with extenders or fillers to create a weaker, more economical version of the original color), fillers are often intimately mixed into the wet stage of manufacturing to create a more homogeneous product. This method allows for a cleaner tone than would result from simply adding dry powders post-production​. However, even skillfully incorporated fillers can alter the opacity, drying rate, and flexibility of a paint film.

While not inherently harmful, fillers must be used judiciously to avoid compromising permanence or performance. In art practice, understanding the role of fillers is essential for evaluating material quality, especially when selecting grounds, primers, or economical paint formulations.”

Fill Light

“A secondary, subordinate light source used to reduce contrast, soften shadow masses, and maintain perceptual readability without disrupting the dominant influence of the primary light source. In visual arts, photography, and cinematography, fill lights are strategically employed to lift deep shadow areas, revealing form information that might otherwise be lost without flattening the overall light structure.

In the Waichulis Curriculum and perceptual training models, fill light is understood as a supporting element: it modifies the darkness or opacity of cast or form shadows while preserving the spatial hierarchy, directional logic, and edge behavior dictated by the primary illumination. Properly managed, fill light can enhance volume articulation, maintain shadow transparency, and facilitate smoother value transitions across form.

However, excessive or improperly placed fill lighting can undermine structural clarity, confuse light source logic, and diminish the spatial legibility critical to effective representational image-making. Fill light must be carefully subordinated in both intensity and influence, ensuring that it supports the primary light’s control over form modeling, shadow direction, and terminator placement.”

Fine Art

“Fine art traditionally refers to forms of creative visual expression—such as painting, sculpture, drawing, and later, printmaking and photography—that are primarily valued for their aesthetic, intellectual, and expressive content rather than functional or utilitarian purpose. The term is used to distinguish such work from applied, commercial, or decorative arts, which are often associated with craft, design, or utility.

The designation of ‘fine’ in this context does not denote superior quality, but rather a category distinction rooted in the history of European academic systems. The term derives from the French beaux-arts, meaning ‘beautiful arts’, and gained prominence in the 17th and 18th centuries as academies of art, particularly the Académie des Beaux-Arts in France, began formally institutionalizing hierarchies between disciplines. Within this structure, painting and sculpture were considered ‘liberal arts’—worthy of philosophical and aesthetic inquiry—whereas weaving, ceramics, metalwork, and other functional forms were relegated to the ‘mechanical arts’.

By the 19th century, fine art had become synonymous with art for art’s sake (l’art pour l’art), separating artistic production from religious, didactic, or practical functions. This ideology underpinned much of the Western canon’s elevation of disinterested aesthetic contemplation as a hallmark of cultural refinement.

However, the 20th and 21st centuries brought significant challenges to this categorization. Modernist and postmodernist movements blurred or intentionally subverted the boundary between fine and applied art, particularly through Dada, Conceptualism, installation practices, and the elevation of everyday materials or processes once excluded from institutional validation. Moreover, global art histories have increasingly questioned the Eurocentric hierarchy that gave rise to the fine art/applied art divide, recognizing that many cultural traditions integrate aesthetics and function inseparably.

In contemporary usage, fine art often retains an association with gallery, museum, or academic contexts, and is frequently defined by its non-utilitarian intent, its alignment with visual language experimentation, or its dialogue with art-historical precedent. However, these boundaries continue to evolve and are subject to critical scrutiny.”

Fine Motor Control

“The coordination of small muscles—primarily those in the hands, fingers, and wrists—in combination with visual and tactile feedback to produce precise, controlled movements. This capacity underlies many of the core technical skills in drawing and painting, including line accuracy, pressure modulation, edge articulation, and brush handling. In the Waichulis Curriculum, fine motor control is developed systematically through structured exercises that calibrate the relationship between perception and action.

Early curriculum activities such as the Origin-Destination Line, Pressure Scale, and Shape Replication are specifically designed to isolate and refine fine motor behavior. These tasks require learners to manage movement initiation, speed, direction, and termination with increasing precision—all while aligning output with visual targets. Through repetition and feedback, learners develop the ability to execute increasingly complex sequences of micro-movements with reduced variability and greater reliability.

Fine motor control also plays a critical role in:

Tactile sensitivity – distinguishing subtle variations in surface resistance and material behavior

Stroke economy – reducing extraneous motion for greater efficiency

Error correction – adjusting motor output mid-execution based on real-time visual feedback

Media specificity – adapting motor strategies to the requirements of different tools (e.g., graphite, charcoal, brush)

The development of fine motor control supports the emergence of automaticity and procedural fluency, enabling learners to focus cognitive resources on higher-level perceptual decisions once basic execution has stabilized. Rather than being assumed as a prerequisite talent, fine motor control is treated as a trainable outcome of deliberate, perceptually guided practice.”

Fish-eye Distortion

“An extreme form of barrel distortion associated with ultra-wide-angle lenses (typically 180° field of view or greater). It causes dramatic curvature of straight lines, especially near the image edges, and is used deliberately for artistic effect or to capture panoramic views. While non-linear and spatially exaggerated, it provides an immersive hemispherical perspective that mimics aspects of peripheral vision.”

Fixation

“A relatively brief and relatively stable pause of the eye on a specific region of the visual field during which visual information is acquired. Fixations typically last between 100 and 600 milliseconds and are separated by rapid eye movements known as saccades. In visual arts training and perceptual research (e.g., Yarbus, 1967), the study of fixation patterns reveals how attention is distributed across an image, providing insight into what visual elements are prioritized or deemed informative. Effective pictorial design can guide or constrain fixation sequences to enhance the clarity, narrative, or aesthetic appeal of an image.”

Fixative / Fixatif

“(Also called fixatif, from the French) A dilute resin solution—typically applied via spray or atomizer—designed to bind loose particles of drawing materials such as charcoal, pastel, or graphite to a paper surface. It differs from a varnish in that it does not create a sealed, protective film; instead, it deposits a weak surface bond intended to reduce smudging and material loss during handling. Historically, fixatives have been composed of natural or synthetic resins (e.g., mastic, shellac, or copal) dissolved in alcohol or other volatile solvents​.

While the goal of a fixative is preservation, its use has long been controversial, particularly among pastel artists and conservators. Even the most carefully formulated fixatives can darken lights, dull highlights, shift chroma, or flatten the subtle reflective qualities of dry media surfaces. As Mayer and others have noted, the application of fixatives—especially when heavy—can significantly alter the perceived color relationships and material characteristics of a drawing​.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, fixatives are explicitly avoided with core drawing materials such as compressed charcoal and white pastel pencil (or charcoal white). This avoidance stems from a fundamental curricular priority: maintaining the reflective behavior and perceptual integrity of the materials across the drawing surface. The visible relationships cultivated during value structure development—especially across edge types, gradations, and spatial cues—are highly dependent on the unaltered surface reflectance of the applied materials. The application of a fixative introduces a surface medium that can unify or level microstructural differences between materials, altering how light interacts with each and thereby compromising the accuracy of those cultivated perceptual cues.

In short, while fixatives aim to preserve physical media, they often do so at the cost of perceptual accuracy—a trade-off that is antithetical to the curriculum’s objective of building stable, nuanced value relationships and training perceptual sensitivity. Instead, preservation is achieved through proper handling, protection, and framing, such as mounting under glass, rather than chemical alteration of the surface.”

Flag

“In the context of artists’ brushes, a flag refers to the natural split ends of a hog bristle, which resemble a miniature, forked twig. This characteristic occurs naturally in high-quality bristle brushes and serves a critical function in paint manipulation. The flagged tips increase the bristles’ ability to hold and release paint, contributing to more efficient loading, smoother application, and superior blending capability.

Ralph Mayer notes that flagged bristles are integral to the performance of oil painting brushes, especially for expressive or textured applications. The branching at the tips of the bristles creates micro-grooves that hold more paint than a clean-cut end, allowing for longer strokes and more gradual paint release​.

To protect this delicate feature, manufacturers often starch or gum the bristles before sale. While this temporary stiffening makes brushes appear uniformly shaped in packaging, it also safeguards the flagging during transit and handling. Once washed out, the natural splaying and paint-handling benefits of the flagged tips become apparent​.

Synthetic brushes often attempt to mimic this quality through engineered tip shaping, but they generally fall short of the subtle, fibrous variation achieved by genuine flagged hog bristle.”

Flat Copy

“A drawing or painting exercise wherein a student reproduces a two-dimensional image (often a printed reference) with the intent of improving observational accuracy, pressure control, and rendering precision. This differs from life drawing or form studies in that the task is purely two-dimensional and often used to introduce early perceptual-motor calibration, value matching, and shape replication. Within the Waichulis Curriculum, flat copies are often employed in early stages to assess baseline coordination before progressing to more complex perceptual challenges.”

Flexible Support

“A type of substrate for painting or drawing that is capable of bending or flexing without breaking. The most common example is stretched canvas—a woven fabric (typically cotton or linen) stretched across a wooden frame. Other flexible supports include primed textiles, paper, and certain synthetic fabrics designed to accept paint.

Flexible supports stand in contrast to rigid supports such as wood panels, Masonite, or aluminum composites. Ralph Mayer highlights that while canvas became a dominant support in the history of oil painting due to its portability, affordability, and ease of handling, it introduces significant challenges related to structural stability over time. Canvas can expand and contract with changes in humidity and temperature, introducing stress into the paint layers that can lead to cracking or delamination—particularly in oil-based systems​.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, flexible supports are often introduced early for convenience (e.g., pre-primed canvas boards), but the program transitions students to rigid panels for greater surface stability, consistent absorbency, and a tactile dynamic that echoes the drawing paper used in earlier training stages​. These characteristics are especially beneficial for the fine control and surface calibration emphasized in perceptual training.

Flexible supports require careful ground preparation to manage their inherent movement. Mayer strongly cautions against applying brittle or inflexible grounds (e.g., traditional gesso) directly to canvas, as these can crack under the material’s natural flexion. Instead, modern acrylic gessoes or oil-based grounds are preferred for their increased flexibility and adhesion compatibility​.

While flexible supports remain widely used—particularly for large-scale works or where portability is essential—artists must weigh their mechanical liabilities against their practical advantages and ensure proper preparation to extend the lifespan of the artwork.”

Floating / Float Frame (Framing)

“A presentation method in which a work of art appears to be suspended or elevated within the frame—with visible space around its edges—rather than being overlapped or covered by a mat or rabbet. The structure that supports this effect is often called a float frame or floater frame.

This framing strategy is commonly used with paintings on panel or gallery-wrapped canvas, where no mat is required, works on paper that benefit visually or structurally from having their full edges exposed, especially when deckled or irregular, or contemporary artworks where the edge detail is part of the visual presentation.

In a float frame, the artwork is mounted on a rigid backing and spaced away from the inner edges of the frame using risers or recessed construction, creating a shadow gap that enhances depth and visual separation. This gap serves both an aesthetic and preventive conservation function by minimizing direct contact between the artwork and the frame’s rabbet.

Ralph Mayer notes that while traditional framing methods often relied on direct fastening (e.g., brads or nails through the stretcher), this risks damage to both frame and artwork. Contemporary float frames avoid this by using mending strips, hidden cleats, or offset clips that allow the painting to expand and contract with ambient humidity without introducing stress or abrasion​.

Float framing is particularly advantageous for conservation-minded display, as it supports: non-invasive mounting (especially for works on paper), visibility of edges and inscriptions, and air circulation around the work.

It is essential, however, that archival standards be followed—such as the use of acid-free risers, UV-filtering glazing (if applicable), and reversible adhesives for mounting. When properly executed, a float frame offers both visual elegance and structural protection.”

Floating (Paint)

“In the context of painting, floating refers to the uneven distribution or migration of pigment particles within a paint film, often due to differences in pigment particle size, density, surface energy, or dispersion stability. It is a phenomenon in which some pigments rise or settle disproportionately within the vehicle during application or drying, leading to visible surface anomalies such as streaking, blotching, or tonal shifts.

This occurrence is related to but distinct from flocculation (particle clumping) and pigment settling (separation in storage). In floating, certain pigments—often lighter or more finely ground—migrate toward the surface of the paint film, while heavier pigments may sink. This redistribution can affect color uniformity, gloss, and transparency.

According to Mayer, the specific gravity of pigments plays a central role: a low-density pigment like aluminum stearate can remain suspended more easily than a heavier one like chromium oxide, which tends to settle rapidly if not adequately stabilized​. Improper grinding, inadequate wetting agents, or an imbalance in oil absorption properties can amplify the likelihood of floating.

This phenomenon may contribute to what has been informally referred to in some restoration and observational contexts as ‘voodoo darkening’—a progressive or irregular shift in local value or chroma in dried paint layers due to internal rearrangement of pigment particles post-application. While not a technical term, this descriptor points to the puzzling visual shifts that can occur over time as pigments migrate microscopically within a structurally compromised film.

Modern paint formulations use dispersants and stabilizers to mitigate floating, but artists grinding their own paints—or working with certain historical pigments—should be aware of this behavior. Best practices include: thorough dispersion and milling of pigments, awareness of specific gravity interactions between components, use of stabilizers like wax or aluminum stearate (judiciously), layering strategies that minimize incompatible pigment behaviors, and understanding floating is essential for diagnosing film defects and ensuring long-term chromatic stability.”

Flooding (Paint)

“A paint film defect in which one pigment or component spreads excessively across the surface, displacing or visually dominating another. This phenomenon is commonly associated with pigment mixtures where different components vary significantly in wetting properties, particle size, or surface energy. The result is a blotchy or non-uniform appearance, often with one color appearing to ‘push aside’ or ‘mask’ the presence of another.

While floating refers to a vertical migration of pigments (typically lighter pigments rising), flooding is more horizontal in nature—creating a dominant surface layer by redistribution during flow or leveling. This can lead to a surface color that differs dramatically from the intended or wet-mixed appearance.

Ralph Mayer describes this as a behavior typically observed when incompatibly dispersed pigments or excessive medium are present, especially in mixtures that dry unevenly or contain poorly stabilized suspensions​. High concentrations of oil, surfactants, or improper grinding can increase the likelihood of flooding, particularly in washes, glazes, or varnish-rich mixtures.

Flooding may also be related to capillary effects on absorbent grounds, where vehicle movement carries certain pigments further than others, exaggerating separation. The defect is most often seen in mixtures of transparent and opaque pigments, or in layers where flow behavior (viscosity and leveling) is poorly controlled.

Preventive measures include: thorough pigment dispersion, avoidance of mixtures with ‘compatibility’ issues, controlled addition of medium or modifiers, and use of stabilizers or homogenizing agents when grinding paint by hand.

Flooding, like floating, contributes to surface instability and apparent color distortion, particularly in layered painting approaches where later glazes may amplify these defects. It is also a candidate contributor to the voodoo darkening effect in certain conservation observations, due to the unpredictable visual shifts it introduces in pigment layering.”

Flow State

“A psychological condition characterized by deep, focused immersion in an activity, accompanied by a loss of self-consciousness, altered perception of time, and intrinsic enjoyment. Coined and described extensively by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990), flow occurs when the challenge of a task is well-matched to the individual’s skill level, producing a state of optimal engagement and productivity.

According to The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, flow is frequently reported among individuals engaged in creative and expert-level work, including professional artists, writers, and performers. In this state, attention becomes fully absorbed by the task, external distractions fade, and performance often reaches its highest potential. It is associated with positive affect, high motivation, and a sense of mastery​.

Core Features of Flow: Balance of challenge and skill: The task must be demanding but attainable. Clear goals: The individual understands what they are doing and why. Immediate feedback: Progress and success are perceptible in real time. Loss of self-awareness: The ego recedes in favor of task immersion. Time distortion: Hours may feel like minutes or pass unnoticed. Autotelic experience: The activity is rewarding in itself, not just for outcomes.

In Artistic Practice: In the Waichulis Curriculum context, flow may emerge after sufficient procedural fluency has been established, allowing perceptual and motor systems to operate with low cognitive load. However, flow is not equated with mastery—rather, it is an experiential state that may arise at multiple stages of development when conditions are optimized.

It is important to distinguish flow from automaticity: while both involve reduced conscious effort, automaticity can be mindless or habitual, whereas flow is highly mindful, purposeful, and performance-enhancing.

Flow is often facilitated by: structured practice environments, defined goals within perceptual training, and intrinsic motivation, such as interest in the subject or joy in problem-solving.”

Fluency

“The ease, efficiency, and adaptability with which a task or operation can be executed. In visual art training, it represents the consolidation of perceptual, procedural, and cognitive competencies such that previously effortful tasks (e.g., pressure modulation, value calibration, or form construction) can be carried out automatically and responsively. Fluency enables an artist to work with reduced cognitive load, freeing attention for higher-order decisions such as spatial planning, interpretation, or narrative intent​.

Fluency may be specified in several domains:

Procedural Fluency: The ability to carry out visual tasks consistently and flexibly across different contexts, without step-by-step deliberation.

Creative Fluency: The capacity to realize complex visual or conceptual intentions with control and adaptability.

Representational Fluency: The ability to construct visually plausible images grounded in observation, calibrated decision-making, and internalized visual language.

From a cognitive science perspective, fluency also refers to the processing fluency of stimuli—the ease with which visual information is perceived and interpreted. This ease can influence judgments of aesthetic preference, as fluently processed images are often rated as more pleasing, familiar, or meaningful. Research in perceptual psychology shows that variables such as symmetry, clarity, contrast, and repetition can enhance fluency, and that high fluency may be hedonically marked—experienced as inherently pleasurable​.

In the Waichulis Curriculum, fluency is a developmental milestone, emerging from repeated, feedback-rich training designed to embed perceptual-motor routines and elevate visual agency. Importantly, fluency does not imply mechanical execution but rather flexible mastery—a readiness to respond to visual problems without reverting to schema-driven or unconscious habits.”

Fluorescent Color

“Exceptionally vivid materials that owe their brightness to the presence of fluorescent pigments—substances that absorb light (particularly in the ultraviolet or short-wavelength visible spectrum) and re-emit it almost immediately at longer wavelengths within the visible range. This re-emission process results in colors that appear to ‘glow’ or radiate with unnatural intensity, particularly under daylight or blacklight (UV) conditions. Unlike phosphorescent materials, which glow after light is removed, fluorescence ceases the moment the light source is gone. The effect is strongest under UV-rich lighting (such as sunlight or blacklight), where colors like neon pink, lime green, or electric orange can appear to ‘pop’ off a surface. Common examples of fluorescent colors include highlighter pens, neon safety vests, blacklight posters, and fluorescent paints used in signage or stage design. Many may be familiar with the term ‘Day-Glo’ colors. In fact, the term ‘Day-Glo’ is a trademarked brand name that became synonymous with fluorescent pigments, particularly those developed in the 1930s and 1940s by the Day-Glo Color Corporation in the U.S.

Fluorescent pigments typically contain organic dye molecules embedded in resin carriers, which can exhibit high chroma and low value simultaneously—characteristics not typically found in conventional pigment systems. However, these properties come at a cost: fluorescent colors are notoriously prone to fading. This fading is primarily due to photodegradation—the breakdown of organic dye molecules under prolonged exposure to UV radiation. Over time, this can lead to significant color shift, dulling, or complete disappearance of the fluorescent effect, especially in outdoor applications. Additionally, these pigments tend to be less chemically stable and more reactive than traditional inorganic pigments, and many are not considered archival. Modern formulations may include UV inhibitors or protective coatings, but these only delay degradation rather than eliminate it.

In short, while fluorescent colors are prized for their extraordinary brightness and visual impact, their use in fine art or permanent installations requires caution due to inherent light sensitivity and impermanence. They are best suited for short-term or controlled-environment applications where visual intensity outweighs longevity.”

Foam Core

“A lightweight, rigid panel composed of a polystyrene foam center sandwiched between two outer sheets of paper, plastic, or archival board. It is widely used in the visual arts for temporary mounting, presentation, backing, and display purposes due to its ease of cutting, low cost, and smooth surface.

Foam core is popular in both academic and professional studio environments for: mounting drawings or prints for critique or framing, creating lightweight painting panels or mock-ups, and serving as a backing material in conservation framing when buffered and acid-free variants are used.

However, Ralph Mayer and conservation guidelines emphasize that standard foam core is not suitable for long-term or archival use. The outer layers of common foam board are often made of wood-pulp paper, which contains lignin and acids that can off-gas over time and cause staining, warping, or deterioration of artworks in contact with them​. Additionally, the foam center may off-gas or break down under heat, humidity, or pressure.

For professional mounting or long-term storage, archival-quality foam core (which is acid-free, lignin-free, and buffered) is recommended. These versions are often used in museum framing, particularly when float-mounting works on paper or supporting unframed materials in portfolios.

While not a permanent painting surface, some artists temporarily affix canvas or paper to foam core for specific projects. Due to its compressibility and vulnerability to denting, foam core should be handled carefully and protected from impact during storage and transport.”

Focus

“In the context of visual perception and visual art, focus refers to both an optical condition and a cognitive-perceptual emphasis, each of which plays a significant role in how information is prioritized and interpreted in image-making.

Optical Focus: In optical terms, focus describes the point at which light rays converge to form a sharp image on the retina (or a photographic sensor, lens, or screen). In human vision, this is achieved via accommodation, whereby the lens of the eye adjusts to bring objects at varying distances into foveal clarity. In traditional image-making, this optical condition is often simulated or manipulated to evoke depth cues, control spatial hierarchy, or draw attention to specific pictorial elements (e.g., through sharp edges or atmospheric perspective).

Perceptual Focus: Perceptually, focus refers to the subjective clarity or prominence of a region within a visual field, often corresponding to where the viewer’s gaze (and therefore fovea) is directed. It is influenced not only by sharpness or contrast but also by compositional devices such as value control, chroma intensity, edge resolution, and structural placement. Artists often establish a focal area or primary area of interest to guide the viewer’s eye and structure the visual narrative.

Cognitive Focus: Cognitively, focus may describe the attentional prioritization of a particular stimulus or idea. In art, this often translates to selective rendering, where the artist chooses to resolve certain elements with more specificity while allowing others to remain generalized or abstract. This mirrors natural viewing behavior, where we rarely perceive an entire scene in high resolution but rather attend to specific details in succession.”

Focal Area

“A region—broader than a focal point—within a composition that contains the greatest concentration of visual interest, designed to attract and sustain the viewer’s attention over time. Unlike a focal point, which is typically a singular and sharply defined element, a focal area consists of multiple interrelated components—such as shapes, edges, tonal relationships, or textures—that work together to create perceptual dominance within a localized zone of the image.

Focal areas are established through a combination of cues, including contrast, chroma intensity, edge resolution, detail density, spatial isolation, and compositional convergence (e.g., directional lines or gaze paths). These visual cues guide the viewer’s attention not to a precise spot, but to a zone of heightened engagement, allowing for a more fluid or exploratory experience.

Whereas a focal point offers a rapid and distinct entry into a composition, a focal area provides a more nuanced and layered form of emphasis, ideal for complex scenes or narrative structures. For example, in representational work, a focal area might include a subject’s head, hands, and interacting objects—all working in concert to support meaning or mood. The engagement is more sustained and multidimensional, inviting the viewer to linger and explore.

Focal areas are especially effective in supporting visual hierarchy, allowing artists to influence not only where a viewer’s attention may begin, but also how it may proceed across the image and return to key zones. While eye movement is ultimately task-dependent—as demonstrated by Alfred Yarbus (1967)—the thoughtful construction of focal areas can significantly shape attentional bias and perceptual rhythm. Understanding how to build and maintain a focal area enables greater compositional flexibility and narrative depth, particularly in works that resist simple or singular emphasis.”

Focal Point

“The specific element or region within a composition that is deliberately designed to attract the viewer’s initial or sustained attention. Often referred to as the ‘center of interest‘ or ‘visual anchor‘, the focal point is typically the most visually dominant aspect of an image. This dominance is created through perceptual cues such as high-contrast edges, abrupt value changes, strong chroma, directional cues, or localized detail.

Importantly, the focal point is not defined by its position within the picture plane—it does not need to be at the geometric center of the composition. Its role is perceptual rather than spatial: it draws the viewer in and often serves as the entry point into the visual narrative. Once the viewer’s gaze is captured, the focal point can also influence subsequent navigation through the rest of the image.

While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with broader concepts like ‘focal area’, a focal point is typically singular and discrete, providing a sharper and more immediate perceptual impact. In contrast, a focal area may involve a wider zone composed of multiple interrelated elements that invite more gradual or distributed attention. Both serve to guide the viewer, but they differ in precision and intensity of engagement.

The effective use of focal points is supported by empirical research in visual perception and eye-tracking studies, such as those conducted by Alfred Yarbus (1967). These studies show that viewer fixations tend to gravitate toward regions of high contrast, sharp focus, figural or facial content, and directional cues. Artists can exploit these perceptual tendencies to shape visual hierarchy, clarify narrative structure, and enhance compositional control.”

Foreground

“The visually and/or spatially nearest zone within a pictorial composition, typically perceived as occupying the area closest to the viewer within the depicted scene. It often contains elements that are rendered with higher resolution, stronger contrast, greater saturation, or sharper edge articulation—cues that support depth segregation and contribute to the perception of three-dimensional spatial layering.

Foreground elements serve multiple functions in representational image-making: They can anchor the viewer’s perspective within the image space. They often initiate viewer engagement and establish compositional entry points. They may frame or contrast with midground and background elements to enhance spatial clarity and narrative sequencing.

In perceptual terms, the separation of foreground from background relies on multiple depth cues, including occlusion, size scaling, atmospheric perspective, texture gradients, and binocular disparity (in stereoscopic vision). Pictorially, these cues are simulated through value control, edge hierarchy, chromatic shifts, and relative detail density.

The foreground is often juxtaposed with the midground and background to create a sense of pictorial depth or illusionistic space. However, its role is not fixed; depending on the compositional strategy, foreground elements may serve a dominant narrative function or act as a neutral framing device to direct attention elsewhere in the image.

Historically, foreground treatment has varied across stylistic periods—from the elaborate repoussoir devices of Baroque painting to the flattened, minimized foregrounds of certain modernist works. Regardless of style, the foreground remains a critical structural and perceptual zone for organizing spatial relationships and guiding visual attention.”

Foreground-Background Dynamics

“The spatial relationship between elements positioned in the actual or implied foreground (front) and the actual or implied background (back) of a composition, primarily influencing depth perception and spatial organization. This concept focuses on how scale, overlap, contrast, and atmospheric perspective create the illusion of depth or flatten space. Unlike Foreground-Background Interactions, which emphasize the visual or conceptual relationship between layers (perceived spatial divisions in an image—specifically, the foreground, midground, and background that contribute to depth and composition), dynamics specifically address how depth is structured and perceived within an artwork.”

Foreshortening

“A visual phenomenon—and representational strategy—in which the perceived dimensions of an object or figure are compressed due to the angle of observation relative to the picture plane. As parts of a form recede in space, their projected shapes become increasingly distorted, often appearing shorter or more compact than they are in physical reality. This compression occurs predictably in accordance with the rules of perspective and projection geometry.

In observational drawing and painting, foreshortening presents a frequent perceptual challenge, as the visual system may default to symbolic or schematic expectations of proportion rather than the distorted contours presented by actual retinal projection. Mastery of foreshortening involves the ability to accurately perceive and reproduce these distortions—often counterintuitive in appearance—through calibrated comparison of angles, proportions, and negative space.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, foreshortening is addressed through progressive spatial construction, shape replication, and the mitigation of schematic substitution. It is particularly relevant in exercises like form wheels and cumulative works from life.”

Forgery

“A work created or altered with the explicit intent to deceive regarding authorship or provenance. Unlike a copy, a forgery is tied to fraud.”

Form

“A three-dimensional object characterized by height, width, and depth. In visual art and perceptual training, the term most often denotes the spatial configuration of an object—its volume, structure, and the way it interacts with light. Unlike shape, which describes flat, two-dimensional boundaries or silhouettes, form implies mass, depth, and orientation within space.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, the concept of form is foundational. Early drawing and painting exercises introduce students to idealized geometric solids (sphere, cylinder, cube, and cone) as vehicles for understanding how value relationships encode surface curvature, occlusion, cast shadows, and reflected light. These form-based studies build the visual logic necessary for more complex rendering tasks, such as the depiction of anatomical or naturalistic subjects.

The perception of form is largely dependent on value behavior—particularly gradations, terminator placement, and reflected light dynamics—rather than on contour alone. This aligns with empirical findings in vision science, which show that the visual system relies heavily on shading cues and lighting context to infer three-dimensionality from two-dimensional retinal input (Palmer, 1999).

In compositional terms, form also relates to pictorial structure—how masses are arranged and interrelated to generate depth, rhythm, and spatial coherence within an image. Maintaining consistent light-based logic across forms (e.g., through the Form Wheels) is essential to preserving the illusion of unity and pictorial believability.

Artists working toward perceptual realism must learn not only to observe form accurately but to simulate it predictively—understanding how light interacts with convex and concave surfaces, how cast shadows behave, and how form turns within space. As such, form is not just a visual artifact, but a conceptual framework for building compelling, dimensional images.”

Formalism

“An approach to analyzing or creating visual art that prioritizes the traditional formal elements of a composition—such as shape, line, value, color, edge, and spatial relationships—over narrative, symbolic, or contextual content. In a formalist view, the success or meaning of an artwork is judged by how effectively it organizes and activates these visual components within the boundaries of the picture plane.

Historically, Formalism became a dominant critical framework in the 20th century, particularly under the influence of critic Clement Greenberg, who emphasized purity of medium and visual autonomy in modernist painting. In this context, formalism often implied a rejection of representational or narrative content in favor of abstract structure and surface integrity.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, formal considerations are not aligned with this purist ideology, but instead serve as the core mechanics of perceptual communication. The curriculum treats formal structure as a system of optical and spatial cues that guide viewer perception, shape visual hierarchy, and enable the effective construction of illusions like volume, depth, and light. Formal design is therefore not opposed to representation but is understood as the primary scaffold that enables it.

This distinction is critical: while traditional formalism may dismiss subject matter as secondary, the Waichulis approach positions formal organization and perceptual logic as inseparable from content in the pursuit of realism and viewer response calibration.

Artists and critics should therefore use the term formalism with clarity—understanding whether it refers to historical abstraction-focused ideology, a general attention to visual structure, or the applied perceptual strategies that underlie representational image-making.”

Format

“The overall dimensions, orientation, and proportional structure of the picture plane in visual art. It encompasses both the shape of the working surface (e.g., rectangle, square, circle) and its orientation (e.g., portrait or landscape), establishing the foundational container in which all compositional elements are arranged.

Within the Waichulis Curriculum, format is treated as an active compositional variable rather than a passive support choice. Artists are encouraged to consider how format affects the viewer’s experience of spatial development, movement, and visual hierarchy. For instance:

A horizontal (landscape) format often evokes stability, breadth, or calm.

A vertical (portrait) format may convey tension, ascension, or isolation.

A square format demands particular attention to symmetry, centrality, and internal balance due to its neutral directional bias.

The selected format influences early compositional decisions, including focal point placement, eye path planning, and the relationship between positive and negative space. It also engages perceptual expectations, as the viewer instinctively interprets visual structure in context with the format’s proportions.

In broader usage, format can also refer to scale or presentation mode—such as in printmaking, digital output, or book design—but in studio practice, it primarily denotes the geometric boundary within which visual relationships are constructed.”

Form Box

“An instructional tool in the Waichulis Curriculum that serves as a critical bridge between structured, two-dimensional training exercises and direct observational rendering from three-dimensional sources. Designed by Anthony Waichulis, the Form Box consists of configurable geometric solids—such as cubes, spheres, and cones—that are arranged and illuminated to reveal how light defines basic form. The exercise’s primary goal is to develop the learner’s ability to observe, analyze, and replicate the interplay of light, shadow, and edge that articulates volumetric structure in real space.

Strategically placed after the Gradation Pattern exercises and prior to isolated form repetitions, the Form Box marks the student’s first foray into what is colloquially known as drawing from life. Its placement is intentional: while it shares visual logic and value transitions with the earlier Gradation Patterns, the Form Box removes the stability of the two-dimensional reference model, compelling students to apply prior perceptual-motor skills in a more variable and ambiguous observational context. This intentional leap harnesses two empirically supported learning strategies—productive failure and the generation effect. Students’ first attempt to translate observed form with limited prior exposure to direct observation, becoming acutely aware of informational gaps. These perceived deficits prepare the learner for deeper retention and adaptability when subsequent isolated form studies are introduced​.

By recontextualizing familiar value patterns in a three-dimensional format, the Form Box also cultivates a sense of visual familiarity that softens the cognitive load of early observational rendering. Many of the shapes and transitions that appear in the Form Box have already been encountered in abstract form during Gradation Pattern exercises, providing scaffolding that supports confidence and insight.

In both the Language of Drawing and Language of Painting, the Form Box is a recurring tool, with chromatic variation introduced in the LOP phase to further challenge the student’s ability to analyze and reproduce value and color gradations under consistent lighting conditions. The exercise reinforces fundamental observational skills, including edge differentiation, value range assessment, rate of change evaluation, and compositional measurement—all within the context of a ‘live’ subject. As such, the Form Box is not merely a transitional step, but a strategic convergence point for multiple foundational competencies, designed to launch the student into the next level of representational fluency.”

Form Wheels

“Advanced perceptual training projects within the Waichulis Curriculum that integrate observation, prediction, and spatial organization through the structured depiction of multiple geometric solids. These exercises include the Cylinder Wheel, Cone Wheel, and Cube Wheel, each of which presents a unique challenge in unifying form-based elements under consistent lighting, spatial coherence, and value behavior.

Each wheel contains eight iterations of the target geometric solid, often arranged radially in a circular composition. While the forms may vary in orientation, rotation, and spatial positioning, they must appear coherently unified within a single, illuminated environment. The Cylinder and Cone Wheels involve a creative compositional component, allowing learners to design the arrangement freely—so long as sufficient variation in orientation and position is achieved.

The Cube Wheel, in contrast, is based on a provided schematic, revisiting the logic introduced in the Ellipse Chart exercise. Students populate a pre-defined layout with observed value structures from life studies of cubes under consistent light conditions. This schematic approach reinforces the predictive and transferable application of spatial logic and tonal modeling.

Across all wheels, learners are required to predict key value behaviors—such as cast shadow trajectories, reflected light placement, and occlusion gradients—prior to verifying their accuracy with live models. This emphasis on prediction cultivates visual reasoning, enhancing the learner’s ability to internally simulate light–form interactions without full dependency on reference.

The Form Wheels are a cornerstone of the curriculum’s goal to transition learners from observation-based replication to constructive perceptual fluency. They synthesize earlier skill sets—like gradation, edge calibration, and surface value matching—into more complex spatial and conceptual demands, providing a crucial bridge from basic geometric forms to natural form projects.”

Fovea

“(Fovea Centralis) A small, central pit located in the macula of the retina that contains the highest density of cone photoreceptors and is responsible for the most acute visual resolution in human vision. Measuring approximately 1.5 mm in diameter, the fovea is the point of fixation—the region of the visual field that we direct our gaze toward when inspecting detail. It is functionally specialized for tasks requiring fine spatial discrimination, such as reading, threading a needle, or identifying facial features.

In the context of visual art, the perceptual significance of the fovea has critical implications for compositional structure, visual hierarchy, and edge control. Because only a small portion of the visual field can be foveated at any moment, artists can manipulate contrast, detail, and sharpness to influence where viewers are most likely to direct their gaze. This aligns with findings in eye-tracking research (e.g., Yarbus, 1967) demonstrating that focal clarity and compositional cues can guide viewer fixations.

Understanding the role of the fovea helps artists leverage perceptual limitations to control attention, manage viewer navigation across an image, and create focal areas that resonate with how the visual system processes information.”

Foveal Vision

“The portion of vision that is processed by the fovea, a small, central region of the retina responsible for high-acuity, color-rich visual perception. The fovea is densely packed with cone photoreceptors, which provide sharp detail and color discrimination, making it crucial for tasks such as reading, fine art, and facial recognition. The fovea covers approximately 1-2 degrees of the visual field, which is about the same size as your thumbnail at arm’s length. This means that while we perceive a wide visual field, only a very small central portion is in high resolution at any given time​.”

Fractal

“A geometric or natural structure characterized by self-similarity across scale, meaning that its constituent patterns or structures repeat at progressively smaller or larger levels of magnification. Unlike classical geometric forms, which have integer dimensions (e.g., a line has dimension 1, a square has dimension 2), fractals often exhibit non-integer (fractional) dimensions, which reflect their complexity across spatial scales.

The term was coined by mathematician Benoît B. Mandelbrot in 1975, derived from the Latin fractus, meaning ‘broken’ or ‘fractured.’ Mandelbrot’s work formalized the study of irregular patterns found in natural systems—such as coastlines, cloud formations, branching trees, mountain ridges, and vascular networks—which elude precise representation using traditional Euclidean geometry.

In perceptual science and empirical aesthetics, research has demonstrated that the human visual system is particularly responsive to certain ranges of fractal dimension, often those falling between 1.3 and 1.5, which are common in natural environments. This sensitivity may be rooted in perceptual adaptation to environmental statistics, as many organic forms encountered in nature exhibit mid-range fractal complexity. Patterns with extremely low (too regular) or high (overly chaotic) fractal dimensions tend to be perceived as less visually fluent or aesthetically pleasing, possibly due to their deviation from familiar ecological statistics.

In visual art and design, while fractal structures can be generated algorithmically or observed in naturalistic rendering (e.g., foliage, erosion, or weathered surfaces), their role is most meaningful when linked to perceptual calibration, surface complexity management, and the evocation of organic patterning. Fractals are also used in certain data-driven workflows, procedural design tools, and simulations, but their impact on representational practice is most significant when aligned with naturalistic texture distribution or spatial complexity gradients.

Fractals serve not as aesthetic gimmicks but as empirically grounded models for analyzing and constructing multi-scale complexity, particularly in systems that demand consistency across visual scales.”

Frame

“In the context of visual art, frame can refer to either a perceptual/conceptual boundary and a physical structure that delineates, supports, or enhances the presentation of a visual work.

Conceptually, a frame establishes the pictorial boundary—the limits of the visual field within which compositional relationships are organized. It defines what is included or excluded, guides the viewer’s attention, and interacts with perceptual phenomena such as inward bias (a tendency for viewers to prefer left or right-facing compositional elements to be ‘facing’ toward the picture’s center). In the Waichulis Curriculum, the frame is understood not merely as a static edge, but as an active compositional tool that modulates narrative direction, focal hierarchy, and spatial stability.

Perceptually, a frame also refers to internal frames of reference used by the visual system to interpret shape, orientation, and spatial organization. These include: viewer-centered frames (retinotopic or egocentric), object-centered frames (based on symmetry or axes of elongation), and environmental frames (derived from gravity, context, or horizon lines)​.

These internal frames influence how we perceive alignment, balance, and directional flow within an image—critical to how we organize and respond to pictorial structure.

Physically, a frame is an external structure—often made of wood, metal, or composite materials—that surrounds and supports an artwork. It may serve several roles: Protective: safeguarding the work from environmental damage or mechanical stress. Presentational: enhancing the viewing experience by isolating the artwork from its surrounding environment, guiding attention, and contributing to the aesthetic or thematic context. Structural: providing support for stretched substrates (like canvas) or housing glazed elements in drawings and watercolors.

The design of a physical frame can amplify or detract from the visual and thematic impact of the piece. Choices regarding color, width, ornamentation, and spacing (such as the use of mats or liners) can significantly alter viewer perception, which is why many representational artists treat the frame as a considered extension of the composition itself.

In summary, whether conceptual or physical, the frame is not a neutral container—it is an active agent in both the construction and reception of visual imagery.”

Framing Gun / Point Driver

“A specialized tool used in picture framing to insert retention hardware—such as flexible or rigid points—into the inner edge of a frame’s rabbet to securely hold the backing board, artwork, matting, and glazing materials in place. It operates similarly to a staple gun but is engineered to drive small metal points laterally into the frame structure without damaging the surrounding material. Framing guns typically come in two varieties:

Manual point drivers, which rely on spring-loaded mechanical force, and

Pneumatic or electric drivers, which offer greater speed and consistency in high-volume framing environments.

The type of point used (flexible or rigid) determines whether the contents can be easily removed for future reframing or conservation efforts. Flexible points can be bent back for repeated access, while rigid points provide more permanent, tamper-resistant closure.

Use of a framing gun enhances both efficiency and archival safety by minimizing the need for adhesives or nails that might damage the frame or artwork. It is a standard tool in professional framing settings and is particularly important in conservation-aware workflows where reversibility and non-invasive securing methods are prioritized.”

Freeform Gesture Drawing

“A hybrid drawing practice that combines the dynamic flow and energy capture (i.e., the visual suggestion of force, momentum, and directional thrust) of traditional gesture drawing with the selective indication of large structural masses. While traditional gesture drawing emphasizes implied fluid motion, rhythm, and the line of action—often excluding shape, proportion, or mass considerations—freeform gesture introduces flattened or abstracted representations of key anatomical forms (such as the rib cage, pelvis, or cranial mass) to suggest spatial occupation and weight without compromising gestural fluidity.

This approach does not rely on bounding frameworks or rigorous construction; instead, the artist intuitively responds to the subject’s movement while selectively embedding key shapes or volumes to clarify pose dynamics and anatomical orientation. These mass indications are often approximate and flexible, functioning as perceptual anchors rather than precise measurements.

Contrast with Traditional Gesture Drawing: Traditional Gesture Drawing prioritizes implied movement, ‘rhythm’, and energy (where energy refers to the implied force, tension, or directional flow perceived within or between visual elements), often avoiding specific form delineation or mass. Freeform Gesture Drawing, by contrast, introduces selective mass indications that provide spatial clarity while maintaining gestural momentum.

This variant is particularly useful in training stages where learners begin transitioning from abstract gesture to more form-aware construction, acting as a perceptual bridge between pure rhythm and volumetric representation. It promotes the development of internal scaffolding and structural awareness without sacrificing expressive line quality or immediacy.”

Freeform Shape Replication Exercises

“Advanced observational drawing tasks in which the reference shape is presented without any bounding box or predefined spatial container. Unlike earlier structured replication tasks that rely on explicit boundary frameworks to aid proportional judgment and placement, freeform replications require the learner to construct or utilize their own internal or external reference systems. These may include perceptual scaffolds (e.g., visual envelopes, negative space relationships, axis analysis) or manually drawn guides (e.g., shape envelopes or gesture lines).

The unbounded nature of freeform exercises challenges the learner’s spatial reasoning, visual memory, and self-directed comparative strategies, promoting increased autonomy in accurate placement and proportioning. Within the Waichulis Curriculum, these exercises represent a crucial transition from guided replication to independent observational decision-making, strengthening perceptual flexibility and the learner’s ability to construct effective frameworks in the absence of overt visual aids.”

Fresco

“A mural painting technique involving the application of pigment onto freshly laid lime plaster. As the plaster sets, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall surface. This method has been used since antiquity, notably in Renaissance art, and offers durability and a matte finish. Understanding fresco techniques provides insight into large-scale wall paintings and the challenges of working within time constraints imposed by drying plaster.”

Frieze

“A horizontal band of sculpted or painted decoration, typically found near the ceiling or atop a wall, often as part of an entablature in classical architecture. Friezes are used to tell a story or depict a sequence of events.” 

Frottage

“A mark-making technique in which a drawing instrument (typically pencil, charcoal, or graphite) is rubbed over paper laid on a textured surface, transferring the physical pattern beneath into a visual record. The technique produces mechanically derived, irregular textures that are often visually ambiguous or suggestive, making it a tool for perceptual exploration and surface experimentation. While popularized by Max Ernst and the Surrealists as an automatic or chance-driven method, frottage also serves to highlight the relationship between material texture and mark behavior.

Though not part of the Waichulis Curriculum’s core perceptual training, frottage can be used to investigate how physical surfaces generate complex visual information and to study how the visual system resolves irregular texture fields. Its value lies in encouraging sensitivity to mark variability, edge behavior, and the perceptual interpretation of non-structured input.”

Fugitive Color / Fugitive Pigment

“A pigment that is chemically or physically unstable over time, particularly prone to fading, discoloration, or alteration when exposed to environmental conditions such as light, humidity, heat, or atmospheric pollutants. These materials are typically rated as poor in lightfastness, meaning they undergo significant perceptual change when subjected to prolonged illumination—especially ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Fugitive pigments have been historically common in both natural and synthetic colorants, including some vegetable-based dyes, early aniline dyes, and certain modern organic pigments. Notable examples include alizarin crimson (original form), gamboge, and certain reds and violets derived from coal tar dyes. While often visually appealing and cost-effective, their impermanence makes them unsuitable for archival-quality or conservation-sensitive work.

The term ‘fugitive’ in this context stems from the Latin fugitivus, meaning ‘to flee’—aptly describing how such pigments ‘flee’ or disappear from the artwork under normal display conditions. This instability may manifest as: fading or blanching, shifting in hue or value, complete loss of chromatic visibility.

Modern pigment classification systems, such as those developed by the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) and Blue Wool Scale, assign lightfastness ratings to pigments based on standardized testing protocols. Artists concerned with archival durability are encouraged to consult such ratings and avoid fugitive pigments in works intended for long-term display or collection.

Fugitive behavior is not solely a function of light exposure—it may also be affected by binding medium, substrate, and environmental factors, making context-specific testing or trusted manufacturer data essential for informed use.”

Fumage

“A technique that uses smoke from a candle or lamp to create patterns and images on a surface. The smoke residue leaves delicate, unpredictable marks, allowing artists to incorporate elements of chance into their work. Understanding fumage can inspire the exploration of unconventional materials and methods in art-making.”